The Dark History of the Girls that Glowed

Please note that this article includes images and discussion of the effects of prolonged radium exposure, which may be upsetting to some readers.

Radium is a chemical compound known for its glow-in-the-dark and radioactive properties. It was frequently used within the military as it allowed soldiers to use their watches, scopes and compasses within the dark conditions. While useful in combat, radium use had severe consequences for the workers who handled it, including the group known as the Radium Girls.

In the late 1910s, hundreds of women were employed by the United States Radium Corporation to hand-paint radium dials onto watches, instructed to use their mouths to point their brushes, which they were assured was safe practice by their employers. Unlike America, European companies had their own methods, but none used lip painting. In Switzerland, they used glass rods, in France the used small sticks with cotton wadding. Other countries in Europe used sharp wooden sticks or metal rods.  In America, this practice of licking their brushes caused these women to ingest small amounts of radium daily. Many of these women started to complain of dental issues, including tooth rot and jaw necrosis. This then developed further into bone tumours, skeletal deterioration and severe anaemia. As radium chemically resembles calcium, it could deposit in workers’ bones, causing long-term effects even after exposure ended.  While these health conditions had started to develop as a direct consequence of radium exposure, the companies in charge continued to deny these claims, instead arguing that these women were suffering from infections like syphilis. This not only argued against the workers’ claims that these illnesses were born from poor workplace protections, allowing companies to dodge liability, but it also discredited the workers’ reputations.

Medical professionals began to become increasingly concerned as the health epidemic that was coming out of these factories began to be studied among the workers. Through autopsies on women who had unfortunately died due to their exposure, it was found that their bones contained large deposits of radioactive substances inside their bones. Sarah Carlough-Maillefer was the first of the women to have an autopsy showing the effects of her exposure. Not only were her bones and teeth radioactive, but so were her organs. After this discovery, doctors were able to connect the string of illnesses and ailments coming from the radium dial factories to the radium paint.

Despite this discovery, the companies in charge maintained their innocence and took part in several cover-ups to protect their reputation. These included withholding data showing the dangerous effects of radium, instead creating falsified reports to prove that the conditions were fine in the factories. One of these reports even concluded that ‘every girl is in perfect condition,’ while women were actively suffering and dying. As these women tried to take legal action against their employers, they faced more setbacks as the companies attempted to cover up their actions. The companies continued to delay court hearings in hopes that the workers would have passed away or deteriorated to the point where they would be unable to testify in court.

The result of this long battle was an out-of-court settlement for a few of the affected women, while many of their coworkers had already passed away or would continue to suffer for the rest of their lives. While radium was used out with the USA, the effects were shown most within the States due to the practice of licking paintbrushes; other methods were used internationally. While the peak of the effects were shown within American women, other international women still faced significant health issues due to the chemical exposure.

The museum possesses watches and compasses, featuring radium-based paint on their dials. The watch face shown below belonged to Major (Pipe Major) Eric Thomas Moss, 2^nd Battalion, who was captured in the Far East, c. 1930. While he was captured, he managed to conceal his watch, hiding it from guards and refusing to tell them where he had hidden it. This watch has a long and interesting story, spanning Major Moss’s military career; however, it started with the Tudor Watch Company, which used radium to coat the hands in order to make them luminous and visible in low-light conditions.

A second item the museum holds featuring radium is a British General Service Button, which has been converted into a button compass. Owned by 2^nd Lieutenant Herny Scott of the First Battalion, this button compass was found within his collection of escape aids. This style of compass could be used discreetly to allow soldiers to navigate escape routes without visible aids. The use of Radium would be especially useful here, as the luminous finish could be used to navigate in dim conditions.

None of these objects is currently on display in the museum and is instead stored in a safe cabinet away from the public. Museums are required to follow strict guidelines and laws regarding the storage and display of radium to avoid any health effects in both staff and visitors. While the levels of radium produced from these objects are generally low, they are still required to be stored in line with legislation. These involve appointing a Radium Protection Advisor, who oversees that safe practice is upheld throughout the site, and keeping objects in a clearly marked controlled area. If a museum collection contains a certain number of objects with radium, they then also have to pay a licence. If on display , objects must be displayed in thick protective glass shields, setting objects at the greatest distance from visitors possible and distancing radioactive objects to avoid visitors remaining in proximity while viewing other items. In the storage and display of these items, every worst-case scenario must be explored and planned to protect staff, volunteers and visitors.

Radium is an important chemical across both military and women’s history. It can be used to highlight creative wartime uses, allowing soldiers to perform simple tasks like checking the time and navigation in difficult conditions. It can be used to explore the dark and exploitative history of the Radium Girls, showing how companies avoided accountability and allowed women to suffer due to the poor working conditions. While these histories can be upsetting, they are important to our understanding of war conditions and women’s labour histories.

Written by Roisin Macdonald, Digital Content Volunteer